Race and Ethnicity

Introduction:

One’s race and ethnicity are the most significant variables when it comes to determining your experience in the United States.  Race is a human-invented concept used to categorize people by physical descriptors such as skin color, hair, and facial features. The idea of ethnicity encompasses an individual’s kinship, religion, language, origin, nationality and can refer to physical appearance but not always. The combination of race and ethnicity are social and cultural factors that shape your perspective and determine how you will be perceived in the United States.

1.    Race

Throughout time, race has been used as a tool to group people based on hypodescent discriminatory causes. Hypodescent refers to a mixed-race individual identified by their parent’s less socially dominant race, typically the darker skin parent. This idea has been used to justify the “One Drop Rule” in the early 20th century. This means mixed-race individuals with African heritage were considered second-class citizens because of the dilution of their European bloodline. Hypodescent distinctions originate in the belief that human diversity is hierarchical and can be used as a tool to keep one demographic of people from succeeding (Santos et al., 2010, p. 121-122).

American society used the notion of race to boost the economic systems of capitalism based on the hierarchy of skin color. To build the US economy, early settlers depended on forced labor through the enslavement of African people. To speak about American history, you must acknowledge that racism is woven into the fabric of American society. The enslavement of African people was crucial in building the US economy (Giles, 2005).  Race categorization is socially determined, and its harmful effects continue to produce racist attitudes with no basis in science.

Race can only be loosely defined to refer to a person with particular phenotypic characteristics. Race constitutes a human determined physical categorization where ethnicity is tied to a sociocultural experience. Research is dispelling race as a concrete concept because it can only be applied to homogenized individuals. Science is proving the concept of race as less biological and more socially constructed.  Anthropologists and geneticists agree that race does not actually exist (Santos et al., 2010, p. 123-124).

2.    Ethnicity

In the United States, race and ethnicity affect the personal lives of Americans differently. This may seem like an obvious statement; however, race relations in America involve a complicated history of discriminatory practices toward people of color. Typically, the darker one’s skin tone equates to the assumption of lacking education or being suspicious while in public. According to Pew Research Center (Cohn et al., 2021), Black Americans report experiencing perceived suspiciousness and being stereotyped as uneducated. Asian Americans report receiving the highest rate of racial slurs toward them. White Americans are most likely to be called racist or prejudiced.

An offensive question in America towards people of color would be to ask them, “where are you from?” This question is considered rude given the context because people of color are regularly forced to clarify their origins.  A person of color may perceive this exchange as a microaggression.  It’s inappropriate to promptly ask about origins because it can make them feel alienated. This scenario is a uniquely American faux pas because of the diversity of its citizens and history of racism in the U.S. (Ravishankar, 2020).

The surrounding discourse of race is highly dependent upon how much emphasis is placed on racial identity. The studies suggest that people of color engage in more discussions with family members on issues of race and ethnicity. Compared to other groups, Black Americans are more likely to stress the importance of race in establishing their self-image. They explain how race negatively impacts their success, creates more struggles, and believe the persisting effects of slavery.  Approximately 60% of Black families discuss ethnicity and race challenges growing up. More than 50% of Hispanics and Asian Americans believe race to be fundamental to their identity. Whereas only 15% of White Americans feel their race is important to their overall identity, they will acknowledge that their race helps them succeed (Horowitz et al., 2019, p. 4-6).

3.    Privilege

White privilege is the concept of understanding unearned benefits based on one’s light skin complexion, European features, and Western mentality. White privilege is not consciously acknowledged growing up in the white majority but only understood through comparison with people of color. White privilege is about understanding the influence of power dynamics. Racism only works when one group has power over another. White privilege can be remedied by acknowledging the power dynamics involved in interactions with people of color (Pence & Fields, 1999, p.150).

In higher education, the racial makeup of the student population is predominantly white.

Teaching white students about racial inequality is best approached by highlighting the advantages of being white.  The common reaction among white students when discussing historical and institutional racism is defensiveness, silence, and guilt. White students should not feel exempt from the effects of racism but understand their role in perpetuating prejudiced interactions as a perpetrator and a victim of the broader racially influenced system. To educate students about institutional racism at its foundational level permits students to become conscious of racist attitudes within their demographic. The important takeaway is to recognize power dynamics, victimization, and how it affects everyone at all levels (Pence & Fields, 1999, p.157).

4.    Intersectionality

Intersectionality as a concept began with Black feminists intended to convey the overlap between race and gender. The theory explains the importance of experiences as it relates to social positioning within society. Intersectionality includes the social interactions between race, class, gender, age, disability, nation, and sexuality.  The concept draws attention to the oppressive practices within social structures, such as racial bias in the justice system for women of color. Black feminists sought to differentiate their experiences from black men and white women. Their overlapping identities and unique problems could not be explained exclusively by race or gender but by combining the two (Weldon, 2008, p. 193).

The goal of intersectionality is not to separate oppressive social structures but to create a new understanding of how these structures interact in unique ways.  An example of intersectionality in its traditional definition: A Black woman being turned away by housing authorities when trying to escape an abusive relationship.  This is a form of housing discrimination based on race and domestic abuse based on gender. This example cannot be understood solely by the Black or Female experience but only through an intersectional lens unique to Black Women (Weldon, 2008, p. 194).  When we overlook the interaction between systems of oppression we are not able to render restorative justice.

5. Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is when an organization ensures people are not discriminated against on the basis of race, ethnicity, or gender. Employers implement equal opportunity to outline the same principles of affirmative action but are different because workplace policy is not proactive but passive in its application. The goal of affirmative action is not just to avoid intolerance but avoid discrimination entirely. The origin of affirmative action sought to aid women-owned and minority businesses gain economic traction (Kellough, 2006, p. 587).

In education, affirmative action operates similarly, which seeks to benefit women and people of color. Prospective applicants who identify as a racial minority are considered a “plus factor” in the decision-making process for admissions and scholarships. The goal of affirmative action in education is necessary for the diversity of universities and the workforce. It is beneficial for all people rather than one racial demographic, but this is a debated issue.

Race and socioeconomic status are still bound together. Affirmative action is helping marginalized social classes. Diversity in the workforce benefits society as it functions efficiently when everyone is represented. Studies suggest better learning outcomes and increased ability at perspective-taking skills when education and work are diverse.  Affirmative action is a proven method for reducing discrimination and correcting historical injustices experienced by marginalized Americans (Kellogg, 2006, p. 588-590).

Racial Injustice in 2021

Defining Racial Injustice:

Racial injustice is when a group of people are assumed to be inferior and so are treated differently from others because of their race, ethnicity, and/or nationality

The Reality for Minorities in the School System:

Even within urban school districts, schools with high concentrations of low-income and minority students receive fewer instructional resources than others. And tracking systems exacerbate these inequalities by segregating many low-income and minority students within schools. In combination, these policies leave minority students with fewer and lower-quality books, curriculum materials, laboratories, and computers; significantly larger class sizes; less qualified and experienced teachers; and less access to high-quality curriculum.

In 2014, the high school graduation rate for white ­students was 87 percent, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. For black students, the rate was 73 ­percent. Test scores show a similar racial gap.

Using national data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Sean Nicholson-Crotty, PhD, at Indiana University, and colleagues found black students were 54 percent less likely than white students to be recommended for gifted-education programs, after adjusting for factors such as students’ standardized test scores. But black students were three times more likely to be referred for the programs if their teacher was black rather than white: EXPECTATIONS

Seth Gershenson, PhD, at American University, and colleagues reported that when black and white teachers evaluate the same black student, white teachers are 12 percent less likely to predict the student will finish high school, and 30 percent less likely to predict the student will graduate from college

Discipline:

Black students in the United States are subject to disciplinary action at rates much higher than their white counterparts. These disciplinary actions put students at higher risk for negative life outcomes, including involvement in the criminal justice system.

Lower life expectancy:

In 2014, Black males and females had lower average life expectancies than white males and females.

Higher blood pressure: Between 2013 and 2014, 42.4% of Black males had high blood pressure, compared to 30.2% in white males. During the same period, 44% of Black females also had this condition compared to 28% in white females.

Lower rates of influenza (flu) vaccination: Flu vaccines can save lives. However, in 2014, only 60% of Black and Latinx people aged 65 or over got a vaccination, compared to 70% of white and Asian people of the same age.

Strain on mental health:

A 2015 review by a trusted source found that racism was strongly associated with mental health difficulties, contributing to stress, anxiety, and depression. This was especially true for Asian American and Latinx groups.

A 2016 study found many white medical students wrongly believe Black people have a higher pain tolerance than white people. Of all the participants, 73% held at least one false belief about the biological differences between races.

Examples of these beliefs include Black people having thicker skin, less sensitive nerve endings, or stronger immune systems. The researchers note these beliefs are centuries old, and that some 19th-century doctors used them to justify the inhumane treatment of slaves.

Many studies reveal racial disparities in how marginalized groups access and receive healthcare in the U.S. Sometimes, these disparities are related to socioeconomic inequality.

However, biases and stereotypes also have a serious impact on how doctors treat POC. This can lead to over- or under-diagnosis of certain conditions, a lack of proper pain management, and increased health risks, even when economic status is not a factor.

These are all just small samples of the reality of today’s world for minorities. The American Dream being one of the biggest selling points for immigrants, is a smoke and mirrors way of hiding the bigotry this country holds for those who look different. Now obviously we aren’t claiming that all white people are racist, not even all racist are white, but we merely want to better prepare you for any future situations you may find yourself in. Just by being informed, you will know how to respond to certain situations, and you are promoting racial diversity.

America’s Views on Racial Injustice

There are many actions to be taken into consideration on ways to end racism in the work environment and in everyday life. There is no real solution that has fully worked so far but there are many things you can do such as, adding required training, having classes to show awareness, and maybe try and convince society to drop social standards and stereotypes of people. Mainly people of different race and ethnicity. One such organization that helps businesses across the United States is Paradigm. You may be asking, “What is paradigm? How does it help racial injustice and social bias?” These questions can be answered in the following.

As of May 2021, 69% of people say racial injustice is an issue. Out of that 69%, there are at least 60% of people saying that racial injustice is more of a problem now than ever because of the last 12 months of events. This includes the world wide pandemic Covid-19 and the racial injustice in police systems including the George Floyd incident. Of course, perspectives on racial injustice vary based on race, ethnicity, and age. It was shown in a study that was recently conducted that the older generations of 55 and older do not think that racial injustice is that big of a problem where 18-44 are more likely to agree that it is. It has come as far as roughly 66% of Americans say businesses should take action against social injustice. There were threats of employees walking out of work if the businesses they worked for didn’t speak out against racial injustice and say that it was an issue they were trying to take into consideration.

A possible solution would be an organization called Paradigm. According to the New York paper, “Paradigm is a diversity, equity, and inclusion strategy firm that has worked with hundreds of companies around the world to build stronger, more inclusive organizations. We design data-driven strategies, implement programs with impact, and train employees and leaders for success” (pr New York).

Veric Lang’s Story

Veric Lang is a 56 year old African American professor with degrees from Princeton Theological Seminary and Yale University. Lang makes a point to include the fact that he is a son, husband, father, friend, military veteran, minister, chaplain, counselor, social activist, and college professor. In his article, Veric discusses what lynching is and how it had affected his life and his families lives. He tells the story of the Legacy Museum and National Memorial for Peace and Justice in Montgomery Alabama and why they have some of the memorials they have presented at the museum. The impact of the memorials was a very emotional moment for Veric Lang.

The equal justice initiative Legacy museum and National memorial for peace and justice is a museum built on a former warehouse where enslaved black people were imprisoned. The site of the museum includes a memorial square with 800 six-foot columns that symbolize thousands of lynching victims and the countries and states where racial terror lynchings took place. These columns are suspended above ground to symbolize the terrible fate of many African Americans who were lynched. For Lang’s family these columns hit a very deep and personal spot in their past.

What is lynching to Lang? Lynching is, in rough terms of how Veric Lang put it, when white people would take a person of color from their home and beat them until they were unrecognizable. According to the oxford languages dictionary lynching is “(of a mob) kill (someone), especially by hanging, for an alleged offense with or without a legal trial” (Oxford Languages). 

Sometimes after being hung to death the victims would be thrown into a river and usually not found. The main cause of lynching was because if a white man had an issue with someone of color they would “point fingers” at the person they had an issue with and the town or city they lived in, which was most likely predominantly white, would then illegally kill the said person.

One evening, some white men came to Lang’s grandparents’ door in Shuqualak Mississippi and said that Lang’s father, who was a seventeen year old boy at this point, had been disrespectful to a white man earlier that day. Earlier that year Lang’s grandparents had heard of a 14 year old boy named Emmit Till, who lived in Money Mississippi, had gotten lynched. In fear of their child becoming another victim to racial lynching, Lang’s grandparents sent his father and his 9 other siblings to stay with an Aunt in Indiana that very day they were told.

Because of the millions of victims to racial terror lynching there are so many families bloodlines that were not able to continue. Veric Lang states that while he was in the Legacy Museum and National Memorial for Peace and Justice tears came to his eyes as he thought of all the unborn children and grandchildren that could never be because of over 4,400 black men, women, boys and girls lynched in America between 1877 and 1960.

To conclude Veric Lang’s past and his fathers past he states, “A history of racial injustice must be acknowledged, and mass atrocities and abuse must be recognized and remembered, before a society can recover from mass violence. … I realize a greater benefit for me has been a renewed sense of appreciation for the unfathomable strength, fortitude and determination not simply of ‘a people’ but of ‘my people’ to rise above the destructive violence that has shaped our nation in an attempt to experience the life, liberty and pursuit of happiness desired by all people” (Varic Lang, Des Moines Register, 19, 20). This is just one person’s story out of thousands, even millions who have made it through the rough past.

Chapter Conclusion
To conclude this chapter, peoples race, ethnicity, and nationality is the biggest variable when it comes to determining your upbringing in the United States. The difference between race and ethnicity. The concept of race is a human invented term to describe and categorize people into groupings based on skin color, physical features, and genetic hereditary. The concept of ethnicity is built around an individual’s kinship, religion, language, geographic origin, nationality, and can refer to physical appearance but not always. White privilege is a concept not consciously acknowledged growing up in the white majority.

Defensiveness and silence are common reactions among white students when discussing current and historical racism. We also discussed intersectionality. Intersectionality explains the importance of experiences as it relates to social positioning within society. It also includes the social interactions between race, class, gender, age, disability, nation, and sexuality. Affirmative action is the implementation of an organization to ensure that people are not discriminated against on the basis of their race, ethnicity, or gender. Some key words and phrases to remember are: Defining Racial Injustice, Racial Injustice in schools and Medicare, Inequality when it comes to discipline, and finally Inequality in medical practice.

References

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Vernic, L., (May 6, 2018) Legacy of Lynching: America’s shameful history of racial terror and injustice is on display at new Alabama museum. Des Moines RegisterLinks to an external site.; Des Moines, Iowa http://ezproxy.morris.umn.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.morris.umn.edu/newspapers/legacy-lynching/docview/2034923545/se-2?accountid=14591 Links to an external site.

Colwell, N., (May 20, 2021). New Report Shows Nearly 7 in 10 Americans Think Racial Injustice is a Problem, And Believe They Should Be Able to Talk About it at Work: Paradigm’s Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Update Explores How the Racial Justice Movement is Reshaping Corporate America PR Newswire New York. http://ezproxy.morris.umn.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.morris.umn.edu/wire-feeds/new-report-shows-nearly-7-10-americans-think/docview/2529067913/se-2?accountid=14591

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