2 Chapter 2: Indigenous Realities

Introduction

Non-white minorities in the United States consistently have to experience and learn how to navigate around prejudice, racism, and loss of opportunities. However, Indigenous Americans have a collective experience that differs in various ways from the experiences of other non-white minorities in the country. They continue to face various injustices as a result of structural racism, stemming from the influences of settler colonialism. And, in order to combat these injustices, Indigenous people participate in decolonization. Structural racism affects all minorities, but settler colonialism specifically affects Indigenous Americans due to the act of settlers displacing the original population, thus it strongly contributes to the systemic injustices they experience. This chapter will present the ongoing realities of Indigenous Americans, beginning with information on various aspects of their cultures, then moving into specific systemic injustices they experience, and explaining various methods of Indigenous activism in the United States. Aspects of Indigenous culture include art, food, language, and traditions. Examples of areas of systemic injustice are education, healthcare, employment, and criminal justice. Finally, Indigenous activism uses decolonization and indigenization to fight against injustice and focuses on valuing Indigenous knowledge as well as enacting civil rights movements.

Keywords

• Indigenous : of, or relating to, the earliest known inhabitants of a place and especially of a place that was colonized by a now-dominant group. Indigenous peoples, also referred to as first peoples, first nations, aboriginal peoples, native peoples, or autochthonous peoples, are culturally distinct ethnic groups who are native to a place which has been colonized and settled by a later ethnic group.
• Settler Colonialism : a distinct type of colonialism that functions through the replacement of indigenous populations with an invasive settler society that, over time, develops a distinctive identity and sovereignty.
• Decolonization : the process of deconstructing colonial ideologies of the superiority and privilege of Western thought and approaches. Decolonization involves dismantling structures that perpetuate the status quo and addressing unbalanced power dynamics. Decolonization involves valuing and revitalizing Indigenous knowledge and approaches and weeding out settler biases or assumptions that have impacted Indigenous ways of being.
• Indigenization : a collaborative process of naturalizing Indigenous intent, interactions, and processes and making them evident to transform spaces, places, and hearts. In the context of post-secondary education, this involves including Indigenous perspectives and approaches. Indigenization benefits not only Indigenous students but all students, teachers, staff members, and community members involved or impacted by Indigenization.

Indigenous Experiences – Structural Racism, Discrimination, and Inequalities

Despite decolonization, Native Americans still face a lot of injustices and inequalities, which are embedded in a broader structural racism. Indeed, inequalities and discriminations are present and significant in all areas and institutions.

First of all, there are some persistent inequalities in schooling for Native Amercians. Based on the results of a survey, Native Americans adults are less likely to have a college degree compared to whites: respectively 15% versus 34%.

These inequalities in school then have an impact on Natives’ living conditions and income. For example, compared to White, Native Amercians are more likely to live in a lower-income household (defined here as earning less than $25,000 per year): respectively 23% and 39%. This huge difference in earnings can also be explained by two other factors. Native Amercians represent an important part of the unemployed. Then, they also face discriminations in employment and in wage: 33% of Native Americans adults said they experienced discriminations in obtaining equal pay or being considered for promotions.

Then, the health care sector is also an important area of discriminations against Native Americains. 23% of them reported that they have experienced discriminations when going to a doctor or health clinic. Thus, 15% of them reported that they have avoided the doctor or seeking health care for themselves or their family. So, it amplifies health disparities between Whites and Natives: Natives have a lower life expectancy, and represent an important share in some diseases.

Another area in which natives face inequality and racism is the police and the justice system. 29% of Natives reported discriminations when interacting with the police and 32% experienced unfair treatment by the courts. As a result, 22% of Native Americans reported that they have avoided calling the police or other authority figures.

Moreover, Native American not only experience racism by institutions but also in everyday life. Based on the same survey, 39% of them reported that they have experienced microaggressions and 38% have experienced violence. 23% have experienced sexual harassment. They also have to face mockery and stereotypes. For example, a lot of sports’ mascots were accused of dehumanizing the native Americans and of cultural appropriation, as well as names and logos in sport, or even chants that mock Indigenous culture. Thus, we can see that all the inequalities, injustices and discriminations faced by Native Americans are mutually reinforcing: it is structural racism.

Indigenous Experiences – Culture and Traditions

As there are a lot of different tribes, there are also a lot of different traditions. But in general, ceremonies and rituals are playing an important role in Native American culture. They have a lot of beliefs and practices.

An example of what is common among Native culture is events such as Pow wow. It is a big event where Native Americans gather and celebrate their culture. In these meetings, people dance, sing, sell their own products etc. One of the largest Pow wow is the “Gathering of Nations” which happens in April, where over 500 tribes gather. In a lot of tribes, there are also death ceremonies. Native Americans emphasize the spirit world after death, and honor the dead often by giving them food and gifts to ensure a safe journey for them. But each tribe has its own special rituals. Healing rituals are also an important part of indigenous culture. Their objective is mainly to return to harmony. Some tribes use plants and herbs to heal and also to create a connection with spirits.

Native Americans also have specific food and meals that are a part of their culture. Generally, their meals include corn, beans, pumpkins, wild rice, sweet potatoes etc. It is mostly domesticated and wild food ingredients. Moreover, there are a lot of different languages spoken by Native Americans in their tribe. Even though during colonization, Native Americans were forced to give up their culture and conform to the norms and values of whites, it remains important for them today to continue to practice and pass on their culture.

Indigenous Experiences – Education

Native American children were placed into residential schools starting around the 1870’s. 150,000 children were forced to go to these residential schools. The last residential school was closed in 1996. These schools were used for the purpose of erasing these childrens culture. In the residential schools these children were not allowed to speak their ancestral language, or perform any of their cultural practices. By law these indigenious children were required to attend these schools. If they did not obey the law there were consequences. If they refused they were at risk for losing their first nations status and most were not in a position to lose those benefits from this status. They could also be fined and fines were more likely than not, a lot of money that they could not afford. Or it was possible that they could even serve jail time.

At these schools the children were stripped of their personalities and their culture. They were not able to have personal items. When they would arrive they were immediately washed and put into a uniform. If their name was not in English they were given a new name. They were not allowed to speak their native language, they were only allowed to speak English or French. If they spoke their Native language there would be consequences. The consequences given from this school were very harsh. They were physically and mentally abused as punishment. They were forced to do physical labor on the daily. The students had to work as custodians because there was not enough funding to hire more staff. The kids would spend half the day doing custodian work. This means that they were more focused on cleaning rather than getting an actual education. The children were separated from their siblings and family at the school as much as possible. If they had the facilities to send siblings to different schools if possible. They were taken away from their parents and families to get them in an easier place to manipulate. This way it was easier to erase their culture and convert them to the colonized way of life.

Structural Racism- Health

Socioeconomic and health conditions are a result of the residential school system. The physical labor and non nutritional food had weakened the body and caused illnesses. The abuse and removal from parents at a young age caused them to not know how to parent their own children. This was passed on for generations. Non nutritional food causes bad relationships with food once they become adults and have to feed themselves. Because of this bad relationship with food they are more prone to illness, diabetes or obesity. If you don’t know what is good or bad for you and you cannot afford healthy food, you will eat foods that are bad for your health. The kids at this school also experienced sexual abuse along with the mental and physical abuse. Because of this it can create substance abuse problems, self harm and a low self-esteem.

Structural Racism – Current Education

After residential schools ended in the 1960’s students didn’t have to work half days anymore. They could finally enroll back into public schools. While they could go to public schools a lot of the children still resided at the residential schools and were still away from their families. The government found a way around the residential schools closing. They introduced the “60’s scoop”. A children aid policy that made indgenious families home “unfit” for children therefore taking the children away from their families. They were then rehomed with non indigenious families and were even adopted across canada and the U.S. With the effects of the residential schools such as poor mental, physical health, poor living conditions, and not knowing how to take care of kids then cps would unproportionately take away Native kids.

Indigenous Activism – Why Settler Colonialism Matters

From an academic standpoint, settler colonialism as a specific concept is relatively new compared to the study of other colonialist phenomena; settler colonialism has only been researched over the last two decades (Veracini, 2010, p. 2). More recently, settler colonialism has been used in academic contexts to further study how Indigenous realities compare to other minorities in the United States, or how settler colonialism affects other intersecting identities of Indigenous people. For example, Glenn (2015) notes that gender is one important intersection of identities that has been significantly impacted by this topic. Glenn explains that settler colonialism introduced male whiteness as a normalized and standard identity, and in order to claim the land that they began to inhabit, “they needed to develop conceptions of indigenous peoples as lesser beings, unworthy of consideration” (p. 58). This particular idea, of creating hierarchies to place white identities above others, applies to gender as well as to other areas of Indigenous identity.

Settler colonialism is the root of the struggles Indigenous Americans in the United States face historically and today, which is why it is such an important topic to address in relation to current Indigenous realities. In other words, settler colonialism should refer not only to the past event of a settler population arriving to a new area and displacing the indigenous population, but it should also refer to the continued impact it has on the indigenous population. The government, which was established by the settler population, plays a huge role in the continued impact of colonization; it is, after all, the body that creates and enforces laws and regulations. This is where structural racism plays a role; if the governing body creates laws that give the advantage to the settler population, that places the indigenous population and other minorities at a disadvantage.

Hixson (2013) documents the very frequent efforts of ethnic cleansing in North America that settler colonists waged against the Indigenous population. As settlers would encroach further on Indigenous territories, there were outbreaks of warfare and plans for genocide, enacted by the military forces of the colonizers. Surviving Indigenous peoples, mainly women and children, would be captured as prisoners and enslaved. These acts happened from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. Non-violent acts of injustice include removing and relocating Indigenous peoples through the signings of treaties, but there were many cases where stipulations of the treaty were not upheld by the colonizing government. The historic narratives surrounding colonizers and the indigenous population are a significant part in shaping general perspectives on the topic. In both the United States and other areas that experienced settler colonization, “historical and cultural frameworks represented the colonizer as the redeemer of a pre-modern land in a triumph of civilization and progress over primitivism and savagery” (Hixson, 2016, p. 2). The colonizer is painted as a hero bringing innovation to an “underdeveloped” society, and is considered more advanced and socialized. This narrative is used to benefit the settler colonizers while discrediting the Indigenous population. But how does one begin to challenge and change the effects of colonialism and structural racism?

Indigenous peoples and allies participate in activism. Indigenous activism includes acts of decolonization, which seeks to undo the colonial ideologies of the superiority and privilege of Western thought and approaches that were implemented after settlers arrived and began colonizing. This can be done through indigenization, which makes space for and values Indigenous people and perspectives. Political activism is another option. In fact, “Indigenous political activism flourished throughout the twentieth century, variously in pursuit of civil rights, economic opportunity, and sovereignty” (Hixon, 2016, p.2). Despite that, however, they continue to face difficulties as long as actual change does not happen at the level of policy-making.

Indigenous Activism – Decolonization and Indigenization through Indigenous Knowledge

One example of decolonization and indigenization in Indigenous activism includes normalizing and placing value on Indigenous knowledge. This can take the form of Indigenous communities preferring to educate their people with their own methods and knowledge, and utilizing traditional Indigenous forms of communication such as storytelling. For example, the National Indian Brotherhood/Assembly of First Nations in Canada put together a policy paper titled Indian Control over Indian Education (1972), which stipulates the requirements of the foundation of any school program for Indigenous children. Beyond suggesting various programs, the policy explains some of the Indigenous philosophy on education. Their central three points include pride in one’s self, understanding one’s peers, and living in harmony with nature.

In the United States and elsewhere, there is a Western epistemic dominance. That is, Western knowledge is valued more than other forms of knowledge. It is the dominant knowledge because of its presence in our educational systems, and Western knowledge is what most people claim is correct or factual. These epistemologies are established as the settlers colonize the land they settled on, and settlers simultaneously devalue Indigenous epistemologies. This is a problem because Indigenous voices, perspectives, and knowledge are being dismissed, and therefore the Indigenous peoples themselves are being dismissed. This ties into the colonial narrative that the settlers were more civilized than the Indigenous population, and Indigenous people in education “who write books and speak about serious matters” are expected to “utilize a narrative form that responds to academic conventions” (Marker, 2003, p. 362). Still, valuing Indigenous knowledge does not always mean that one has to completely forgo Western knowledge; “Indigenous knowledges subvert and re-create what the Western academy puts forward as valid ways of knowing” (Sium & Ritskes, 2013, p.3).

Storytelling is a method of teaching and learning that Indigenous people have used from past to present. Today, though, in light of Western epistemic dominance, storytelling is also seen as an act of resistance to colonizer ideas and methods. Instead of participating only in Western educational systems with the expectation that they follow Western norms, Indigenous peoples will continue to teach and learn through stories. This allows them to both embrace their culture and rebel against the dominant Western culture. As Sium and Ritskes (2013) explain, “stories as Indigenous knowledge work to not only regenerate Indigenous traditions and knowledge production, but also work against the colonial epistemic frame to subvert and recreate possibilities and spaces for resistance” (p. 3).

Indigenous Activism – Decolonization and Indigenization through Political/Civil Rights Movements

One other example of decolonization and indigenization in Indigenous activism is enacted through political and civil rights movements. Indigenous people face systemic discrimination, and one way for them to publicly voice their opinions and demand for change in law and policy lies in political movements. These are often nonviolent demonstrations such as protests, civil disobedience, and economic or political noncooperation. It can also involve writing and art as well. One area of Indigenous political movements in the United States involves environmental justice. The environment has been disproportionately impacted in low-income communities and people of color communities; environmental hazards such as waste facilities are more prevalent in these communities. These release toxic waste and pollution into the environment, which in turn affects the people living nearby (Cole & Foster, 2001, p. 54).

One specific example of Indigenous activism and environmental justice revolves around the Dakota Access Pipeline. There are many events and details surrounding the protests of this pipeline, but only a brief summary will be presented here. The pipeline, originally planned to be implemented in 2017, would be an oil pipeline spanning from North Dakota, through South Dakota and Iowa, and ending in Illinois. The concern people have with this pipeline is the potential it has to have major adverse effects on surrounding water supplies in the event of leaks or spills; specifically in the water supply of the Standing Rock Indian Reservation (Conway & Dugway, 2019, p. 37-18).

Protests and petitions were organized, with Indigenous and non-Indigenous participants, protesting the construction of the pipeline and advocating for respect of Indigenous rights and environmental justice. Despite that, the pipeline proceeded to be constructed. The Sacred Stone Camp was established by LaDonna Brave Bull Allard, Standing Rock’s Historic Preservation Officer. The Camp was intended to be a place of cultural preservation and spiritual resistance to the Dakota Access pipeline. Various times of protest lasted for several months towards the end of 2016, both at Standing Rock and at other points of the pipeline’s construction. Some protestors, in early November, set up a camp near where the pipeline would cross the Des Moines River. Before construction workers arrived, protestors climbed inside the pipe and refused to leave until they were dragged out by police (Edwards & Villa, 2018, p. 97).

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