2 Module 2: How people learn

Theoretical frameworks of learning

Educational researchers have identified several different frameworks to explain how people learn (Table 1). With each of these frameworks, attention is paid to how individuals recognize what is new material and incorporate that information into pre-existing mental constructs so as to permit them to retrieve and use that new information. Seven core principles of learning have been identified (Ambrose et al, 2010).

Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning: Student knowledge and attitudes promote or dissuade their desire to incorporate new information. Sometimes as a tutor, it is valuable to help students think through how they arrived at their pre-existing knowledge about a given topic. If your tutee worked at a small animal clinic for a long time before getting into school and got very strong background information about anesthesia, that will help you as you work with them on respiratory physiology. Conversely, if they were taught by someone they really trust that modified-live vaccines should never be used in puppies less than 12 weeks of age, it is an opening to have a good discussion about what they know about different kinds of vaccines, longevity of passive immunity, and development of the immune system with age to help them think through the risk-benefit instead of just relying on a hard-and-fast rule for that situation.

How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know: There is great value in organizing information to permit more ready retrieval. Students studying for board certification in theriogenology were more likely to be successful if they read and took notes on study materials to create their own study aids (Root Kustritz, 2012). As a tutor, it is valuable to spend time with tutees not about content, but instead about how they organize and work with that content and if there are untried methods that might enhance their learning.

Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn: Motivation is derived from a combination of the student’s drive to succeed, the enjoyment they get in working with the material or toward a goal, and the knowledge that mastery of the material will enhance their life or career (Eccles, 2005). Students are more motivated to learn if they find positive value in mastering the material and if they successfully achieve an outcome such as passing an examination. Tutors can be a powerful force in reminding tutees to set short- and long-term goals to help enhance motivation.

To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned: No one can truly master content with using that content in authentic situations. The tutor can help students think through the steps of mastery to give them an idea of where they are in achieving that level of competency with given course material. For example, when learning radiology, the tutor may ask the tutee to consider what area of the distal limb of a horse appears abnormal, then to think about what anatomical structures are there, and only then to think about how damage to those structures may change the horse’s gait, helping the tutee to see how they can incorporate information they already know (gross anatomy and physical examination) to help them think through new material.

Goal-directed practice with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’ learning: Directed practice is performance of a skill and immediate use of feedback to improve performance of that skill. Tutees benefit much more from recognition of effort than for a quest for perfect accuracy. For example, let’s say you’re having a discussion about systemic pathology and are reviewing slides. The tutee can tell you it is a kidney but describes the pathology incorrectly. You might consider asking the tutee how they knew it was the kidney (reinforcing what they did well) and then ask why they believe it is the specific pathology they stated. Now provide feedback and give them some basic information about that pathology and ask them to try again. That immediate feedback reinforces the material in the mind of the learner.

Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning: Students will be at all levels of social and emotional development. Some students may be in denial about needing assistance in learning. Some will very much admire you, as a tutor, and wish to befriend you. Creation of a positive learning climate can help student motivation and learning but it is also important to maintain a professional boundary and to recognize signs that a tutee may need outside help with a personal issue. This will be discussed in greater detail in Module 3.

To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to learning: Self-regulatory behaviors are those thoughts, feelings, and actions necessary for attainment of goals (Zimmerman, 2002). Increased self-regulatory behaviors are associated with increased test scores in high school and college courses and with greater likelihood of passing a high-stakes post-DVM examination (Judd and Bail, 2006; Kitsantas, 2002; Root Kustritz, 2012). These behaviors include goal-setting, planning, monitoring progress, and rewarding oneself for meeting specific goals. Tutors can help tutees set achievable goals and remind tutees of those goals when motivation flags.

Table 1. Theoretical frameworks of learning (University of Newcastle, 2015)

Bloom’s taxonomy and using it to assess mentee level

As one integrates information, you move from knowledge, through comprehension, to application, then analysis, evaluation, and finally, to synthesis. This hierarchy of understanding is known as Bloom’s taxonomy. As you work with students, it is valuable to assess where they are on this continuum, as that will determine where you need to work with them and what their goals should be for mastering that material. Working with the material at the higher levels of analysis, evaluation, and synthesis leads to meaningful learning and long-term retention.

Table 2: Assessing learner’s level of thinking

Here are some questioning tips:

1. To identify the level at which a student has gained mastery, start with lower level questions and work your way up. Begin by asking knowledge and comprehension level questions (describe the anatomy and function of the nephron) and then move to higher level questions (what happens in the nephron if blood pressure falls).
2. Use close-ended questions for lower levels of thinking (what does this term mean) and open-ended questions for higher levels of thinking (describe the underlying causes of…). Remember that close-ended questions can be answered with 1-2 words and that open-ended questions require thought and a longer response.
3. Ask only one question at a time. Give time for the tutee to answer – this can be difficult as it is a normal compulsion for us to fill any silences with chatter. Ask one question (what happens to the nephron if blood pressure falls) and if the tutee cannot answer, try asking in a different way (what effect does blood flow have on the function of the nephron). If the tutee still cannot respond, either have them spend a minute reviewing appropriate materials and try again or ask a question that breaks things down into smaller parts (what is the function of the nephron).
4. After the tutee has reached a correct answer, ask the tutee to explain why it is correct. If they are able to explain well but if they are unable to explain, it is an opportunity to dive into the material to learn which component of that topic is still not clear to them.

REFERENCES

• Ambrose SA, Bridges MW, Lovett MC, DiPietro M, Normal MK. How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010.
• Eccles JS. Subjective task value and the Eccles et al model of achievement-related choices. In: Elliot AJ, Dweck CS, eds. Handbook of competence and motivation. New York: Guilford, 2005.
• Judd JS, Bail FT. Secondary students’ strategies and achievement. Acad Exch Quarterly 2006;10:116-120.
• Kitsantas A. Test preparation and performance: A self-regulatory analysis. J Exptl Educ 2002;70:101-113.
• Root Kustritz MV. Effect of attitudes toward study, study behaviors, and use of study aids on successful completion of the certifying examination of the American College of Theriogenologists. Clin Therio 2012;2:467-471.
• University of Newcastle, Australia. Peer assisted study sessions (PASS): Information for staff. Available at: https://www.newcastle.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/82710/PASS-Information-for-Staff.pdf. Accessed 08-12-15.
• Zimmerman BJ. Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In: Bockaerts M, Pintrich P, Seidner M, eds. Self-regulation: Theory, research and applications. Orlando:Academic Press, 2002.