The achievement gap between White students and students in minority groups has been investigated for decades using a variety of different methods and approaches. Exam score differences between Black and White students have been a particular focus of empirical research (Jencks et al., 1981; Jencks & Phillips, 1998; L. S. Miller, 1997), but much of the data obtained also has strong implications for other minority groups. Academic achievement can potentially be measured in many different ways including standardized testing, grade point averages (GPA), passing/failing rates, retention/attrition rates, and exam scores for individual classes/topics. While these metrics are not without their problems, the underlying assumption is that these metrics indicate (at least to some degree) the knowledge and abilities of students (Kao & Thompson, 2003). Although they are correlated with standardized test scores, grades are more sensitive to student input (i.e., time spent studying) and are stratified by subject areas (Fehrmann et al., 1987; Fuligni, 1997; Kao et al., 1996). Grades also inform students of their own level of proficiency and achievement within a given subject area which may affect their odds of staying in school and earning a particular degree (Fehrmann et al., 1987). Using a combination of the above metrics, researchers have investigated the achievement gap at the primary, secondary, and postsecondary school levels. Academic achievement gaps can be observed as early as kindergarten and they seem to follow underrepresented groups throughout their educational career.

Primary School (AKA Grade School)

While measuring the achievement gap can be done at any education level, historically it has mostly been done via tests given during grade school (Hertert & Teague, 2003). The closest thing to a national test that can be used for broad comparisons is the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a battery of tests given to 4th, 8th, and 12th graders in 32 different states. The closest thing to a national test that can be used for broad comparisons is the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a battery of tests given to 4th, 8th, and 12th graders in 32 different states. These tests are frequently different between different states and they can change over time making broad scale or long-term comparisons difficult. What is clear however is that these tests show that certain groups of children score far below children in other groups.  While in primary school, AHN students do not take as many math and science courses as their White and Asian peers and the ones they do take are often less challenging (Kelly, 2009; Nord et al., 2011; NSB, 2014; Riegle-Crumb & Grodsky, 2010). This is important because academic achievement gaps within advanced courses are strongly correlated with racial/ethnic gaps seen on standardized tests (Gamoran & Mare, 1989; Kao & Thompson, 2003, 2003) and with level of interest in STEM (J. D. Miller & Kimmel, 2012; Wang, 2013).

Secondary School (AKA Middle/High School)

The achievement gaps that are observed in primary school continue and become more entrenched as students enter secondary school. The NAEP shows that Black, Hispanic, and Native American students have typically lagged behind White students in vocabulary, reading and math (Kao & Thompson, 2003). When these students take the SAT during 11th or 12th grade the score differences are even more pronounced. For example, in 2021 the average total SAT score was 1239 for Asians, 1112 for Whites, 967 for Hispanic/Latinx, 934 for African Americans, and 927 for Native Americans (CollegeBoard, 2021). According to a 2019 survey, the high school dropout rates have also been observed to be higher for African American (5.6%), Hispanic (7.7%), and Native American (9.6%) students than they are for White (4.1%) or Asian (1.8%) students (NCES, 2021).

Postsecondary School (AKA College)

When researchers controlled for pre-college academic performance disparities, they found that AHNs are more likely than their White peers to both enroll in college and to declare STEM majors (Xie et al., 2015); furthermore, AHNs pursue STEM fields as often as Whites do (Xie et al., 2015). This could be due in part to the fact that AHNs are as enthusiastic about STEM education and careers as White students (NSB, 2014; Riegle-Crumb et al., 2011; Riegle-Crumb & King, 2010).

Despite high enthusiasm and enrollment, AHNs remain underrepresented in STEM education. In 2019, 36.9% of Whites had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher while the percentage was lower for Blacks (22.5%), Hispanic/Latinx (17.6%), and Native Americans (16.1%) (US Census Bureau, 2019). In addition, AHNs are disproportionately represented at community colleges which typically have poor outcomes and offer less career opportunities than larger 4-year institutions (Brint & Karabel, 1989; Dougherty, 1994). AHNs are also more likely than White students to attend school part-time (Rumberger, 1982), and are more likely to drop out of college (Chang et al., 2014; Chen, 2015; Estrada et al., 2016; Good et al., 2000; Kalsner, 1991; Seymour & Hewitt, 1994). These effects are likely due to disparities in academic preparation as the gap is eliminated when you control for high school grades and test scores (Camburn, 1990).

Summary of Racial/Ethnic Academic Achievement Gap

Educational disparities start in kindergarten and become compounded throughout an AHN student’s educational progression (Xie et al., 2015). The observed racial/ethnic achievement gap limits AHN participation, achievement (e.g., standardized test scores) and educational attainment (e.g., highest degree earned) in STEM (Xie et al., 2015). While much progress was made following the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, the progress has since stagnated and today the achievement gap is not much better than it was in the 1970s The achievement gap is not much better than it was in the 1970s. (Merolla & Jackson, 2019). Although many equity-focused policies have been implemented, there are still significant differences between AHN participation, scores, and grades when compared to White and Asian students (Xie et al., 2015). In K-12 settings, teachers often have lower expectations for AHN students (Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007) with a focus on behavior and discipline rather than cultivating academic opportunities (Merolla & Jackson, 2019). AHNs continue to be underperforming and underrepresented in STEM (Chen & Soldner, 2013; NSB, 2014) and they are more likely to drop out of school than White and Asian students at primary, secondary, and postsecondary levels (Oakes, 1990; Ross, 2012).