Review of Part I: Achievement Gaps and Their Causes
Achievement Gaps in Higher Education
An achievement gap is a consistent pattern of performance differences between any two groups of students. Historically ‘the achievement gap’ primarily referred to the performance difference between White and Black students, or between White students and underrepresented minorities (URMs) such as African American, Hispanic/Latinx, and Native American (AHN) students. Used more broadly the term ‘achievement gap’ can also be used to describe performance differences between first-generation (FG) and continuing-generation (CG) students, or between transfer and non-transfer students. This book will collectively refer to all of these performance differences as ‘achievement gaps’.
Causes of Achievement Gaps
AHN, FG, and transfer students experience many challenges while in higher education. These challenges are described in detail in Part I of this book. Briefly, structural racism (Merolla & Jackson, 2019), bias (Staats et al., 2017), social isolation (Jacobson et al., 2017), and stereotypes (Meadows et al., 2015) have led to underrepresentation, reduced generational wealth and income (GWI) (Hertert & Teague, 2003), inadequate support (Mofatteh, 2020), reduced opportunities (Merolla & Jackson, 2019), an increased prevalence of social-psychological factors (Xie et al., 2015) (e.g., stereotype threat, the imposter phenomenon etc.), and an unlevel playing field (Alhindi, 2020; Goldhaber et al., 2015). Colorblindness (Markus et al., 2000), microaggressions (Harrison & Tanner, 2018), and a fixed mindset (Yeager & Dweck, 2020) in both students and faculty all contribute to and exacerbate the issues. FG and transfer students are also burdened with the additional problems of transfer shock, information overload, cultural mismatch, and increased family responsibilities (Chin-Newman & Shaw, 2013; Laanan, 2001; Shelton, 2011). Ultimately these underlying problems contribute to academic achievement gaps by 1) reducing feelings of belongingness, 2) increasing stress and anxiety, and 3) reducing engagement and performance. These formidable challenges are inextricably linked, and they often reinforce one another; for example, it is easy to imagine how a student who experiences a high degree of bias might be less likely to feel that they belong in the classroom, which could lead to increased stress and anxiety, and concomitant declines in both engagement and performance.
Significant performance differences between any two populations of students that are not based solely on merit, but are instead based on the different life experiences of those students
African Americans/Blacks, Hispanic/Latino(a), and Native Americans/Alaskan Natives.
Students whose parents do not have a degree from a 4-year college.
A student who transferred from one undergraduate institution into another.
Prejudice and/or discrimination directed against against groups of people with a particular skin color or ethnic background.
Prejudice against one thing, person or group. Usually it is considered to be unfair.
A widely held belief about a particular group of people.
Refers to the amount of generational wealth and household income a person possesses. Considered to be more respectful and than the "socioeconomic status (SES)" while maintaining the same meaning.
Also known as non-cognitive or affective factors, include interest in science, science identity, science career aspirations, attitudes, beliefs, confidence, belonging, attention, self-discipline, self-esteem, enthusiasm, effort, responsiveness, ethnicity stigma conscious (ESC, a measure of stereotype threat), and anxiety.
Occurs when students are conscious of stereotypes about their social group and either believe these stereotypes are true, or fear their actions might inadvertently confirm and perpetuate negative stereotypes about their group.
Occurs when high-achieving individuals fail to internalize their success and accomplishments, have self-doubt that they belong where they are, and fear being exposed as an imposter.
Refers to the unfair or inequitable starting conditions or circumstances when comparing two or more populations.
A misguided ideology that emphasizes sameness and postulates that individuals have the same opportunities and should thus be treated equally regardless of their starting circumstances.
Short, often subtle, statements or actions that consciously or unconsciously disparage others based on their background, personal characteristics, race, ethnicity, or perceived group membership.
The idea that a person's intelligence is unchangeable.
Performance decline following a transfer from one institution to another. Often accompanied by feelings of being overwhelmed.
Difficulties conversing-with and relating-to groups who have norms, experiences, and cultural values that are different from our own.